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DiscretMathematics/12EulersFormula.tex
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\chapter{Euler公式}
\section{平面图}
\begin{definition}
如果图$G = (V, E)$的所有顶点和边可以在一个平面上图示出来,而使各边仅在顶点处相交,则图$G$称为平面图,它的平面图示称为图$G$\newnoun{平图}{planar graph};否则称$G$为非平面图。
\end{definition}
需要注意的是,有些图形从表面上看有几条边是相交的,但是不能就此肯定它不是平面图,下面这个图就是一个例子:
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\subfloat[最初的图形]{
\begin{tikzpicture}
\node[draw=black, circle] (a) at (0,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (b) at (3,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (c) at (3,2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (d) at (0,2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (e) at (1.5,3) {};
\draw (b)--(a)--(d)--(c)--(b)--(e)--(a)--(c)--(e)--(d);
\draw[opacity=0] (a).. controls (4,-1) ..(c);
\end{tikzpicture}
}
\hspace{2cm}
\subfloat[调整边的画法后的图形]{
\begin{tikzpicture}
\node[draw=black, circle] (a) at (0,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (b) at (3,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (c) at (3,2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (d) at (0,2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (e) at (1.5,3) {};
\draw (b)--(a)--(d).. controls (2,4.5) ..(c)--(b)--(e)--(a).. controls (4,-1) ..(c)--(e)--(d);
\end{tikzpicture}
}
\end{figure}
\section{面和边界}
\begin{definition}
$G$是一连通平面,由图中的边所包围的区域,在区域内既不包含图的顶点,也不包含图的边,这样的区域称为$G$的一个\newnoun{}{face},有界的区域称为有界面,无界的区域称为无界面。
包围一个面的的诸边所构成的回路称为这个面的边界。面$F$的边界的长度称为该面的度数,记为$d(F)$
\end{definition}
\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\begin{tikzpicture}
\node[draw=black, circle] (a) at (-3,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (b) at (0,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (c) at (1,2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (d) at (1,-2) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (e) at (5,0) {};
\node[draw=black, circle] (f) at (2,0) {};
\draw (f)--(e)--(c)--(d)--(b)--(c);
\draw (b)--(a).. controls (1,4).. (e) .. controls (4,-1) and (3,-1.5).. (d) .. controls (0,-1.8) and (-2, -1).. (a);
\node at (-3.5,0) {$A$};
\node at (-0.3, 0.3) {$B$};
\node at (1.3,2.3) {$C$};
\node at (1, -2.5) {$D$};
\node at (5.5,0) {$E$};
\node at (2, 0.5) {$F$};
\node at (-0.7,-0.7) {$r_1$};
\node at (0.5,0) {$r_2$};
\node at (1.5, 1) {$r_3$};
\node at (0,1) {$r_4$};
\node at (4,2) {$r_5$};
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{figure}
在上图中,$d(r_1) = 3, d(r_2) = 2, d(r_3) = 5, d(r_4) = 4, d(r_5) = 3$
\begin{theorem}
有限平图面的度数之和为其边数的两倍:
\[\sum d(f) = 2 \vert E \vert\eqper\]
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
任意一条边只可能是下面两种情况中的一种:
\begin{enumerate}
\item 它是两个面的共同边,在两个面的度中分别被计算了一遍;
\item 它是一个面边界的重复,在这个面的度中被计算了两遍。\qedhere
\end{enumerate}
\end{proof}
\section{欧拉公式}
\begin{theorem}[Euler's Formula]
$G$为一连通平图,$v$为其顶点数,$e$为其边数,$f$为其面数,那么有
\[v - e + f = 2\eqper\]
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
对面的数量进行归纳。
$f = 1$,则$G$为一棵树,且$e = v - 1, f = 1$,因此$v - e + f = v - v + 1 + 1 = 2$成立。
设对于面数小于$n$的所有连通平图定理成立。那么对于面数为$n$的连通平图$G$,任选$G$的一条非桥的边$a$,那么$G-a$是连通平图,且$f(G-a) = n - 1$。由归纳假设有$v(G-a) - e(G-a) + f(G-a) = 2$,同时$v(G-a) = v(G), e(G-a) = e(G) - 1, f(G-a) = f(G) - 1$,因此$v(G) - e(G) + f(G) = 2$
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}
$G$为一简单连通平图,其点数$v \geq 3$,其边数为$e$,那么$e \leq 3v - 6$
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
$G$的边数为$f$那么每一个面的度数都不小于3同时各面的度数和为$2e$,这意味着
\[3f \leq \sum d(F) = 2e, f \leq \frac{2}{3}e\]
代入Euler's Formula
\[2 = v - e + f \leq v - e + \frac{2}{3}e\]
整理可得$e \leq 3v - 6$
\end{proof}
这个定理不是充分的,满足此条件的图有可能不是平图。
上面的定理利用了``每个面的度都不小于3''这一事实。如果有图的面度都不小于$k$呢?
\begin{corollary}
对每个面的度至少为$k$的连通平图,有
\[e \leq \frac{k(v-2)}{k-2}\eqper\]
\end{corollary}
证明与前面的定理是类似的。