From 09a1d42dd5860031d25fcc0dcc48182f918523c7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: unlockable Date: Wed, 30 Nov 2022 23:41:24 +0800 Subject: [PATCH] =?UTF-8?q?=E7=AC=AC=E5=85=AD=E7=AB=A0=E3=80=82?= MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit --- 02函数及其连续性.tex | 2 +- 04微分与Taylor定理.tex | 42 ++++++++++- 05差值与逼近初步.tex | 6 ++ 06求导的逆运算.tex | 168 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 高等微积分.tex | 6 +- 5 files changed, 221 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-) create mode 100644 05差值与逼近初步.tex create mode 100644 06求导的逆运算.tex diff --git a/02函数及其连续性.tex b/02函数及其连续性.tex index 53ceb60..ebf693e 100644 --- a/02函数及其连续性.tex +++ b/02函数及其连续性.tex @@ -778,7 +778,7 @@ $x = 0$是$f$的第二类间断点。 故$x_0$为跳跃间断点。 \end{proof} -\begin{theorem}[Weierstrass第一逼近定理] +\begin{theorem}[Weierstrass第一逼近定理]\label{Weierstrass第一逼近定理} $f \in C[a, b]$,则$\forall \varepsilon > 0$,存在多项式$P(x)$,满足 \[\forall x \in [a, b] \eqco \vert f(x) - P(x) \vert < \varepsilon \eqper\] \end{theorem} diff --git a/04微分与Taylor定理.tex b/04微分与Taylor定理.tex index ca8aa34..7cf9616 100644 --- a/04微分与Taylor定理.tex +++ b/04微分与Taylor定理.tex @@ -98,6 +98,8 @@ \begin{definition}[Taylor多项式与Maclaurin多项式] 设$f(x)$在$x_0$附近有定义,且$f^{(n)}(x_0)$存在,引入多项式 \[P_n(\Delta x) = f(x_0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0)}{1!}\Delta x + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2!}\Delta x^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}\Delta x^n\] + 或 + \[T_n(f, x_0;x) = f(x_0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0)}{1!}(x-x_0) + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2!}(x-x_0)^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}(x-x_0)^n\] 称为$f(x)$在$x_0$点的$n$次Taylor多项式。 特别地,在$x_0 = 0$时,Taylor多项式称为Maclaurin多项式: @@ -179,7 +181,7 @@ \begin{proof}[解] $f^{(k)}(x) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!(1+x)^{k-1}$,因此$f^{(k)}(0) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!$,$k = 1, 2, \cdots$。 所以 - \[\ln (1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots + (-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n} + o(x^n)\eqper\] + \[\ln (1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots + (-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n} + o(x^n)\eqper\qedhere\] \end{proof} \begin{example} @@ -215,4 +217,42 @@ \sqrt{1 + x} 1 + \frac{1}{2}x - \frac{1}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = \frac{1}{2})\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 + x}} = 1 - \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{3}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = -\frac{1}{2}) \end{align*} +\end{remark} + +\section{带Lagrange余项的Taylor公式} +\begin{theorem} + 设$f$在$(a, b)$内$n+1$阶可导,$\forall x_0$,$x_0 + \theta x \in (a,b)$,$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$满足 + \[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = P_n(\Delta x) + \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!} \Delta x^{n+1}\] + 其中 + \[R_n(\Delta x) := \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!} \Delta x^{n+1}\] + 称为Lagrange余项。 +\end{theorem} + +\begin{proof} + 要证明的式子等价于证明$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$使得对于$\Delta \neq 0$有 + \[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} = \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\eqper\] + + 回忆Cauchy中值定理: + 设$F(t), G(t) \in C[0,1]$且在$(0,1)$内可导,且$\deriv{G}(t) \neq 0$,则$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$满足 + \[\dfrac{F(1) - F(0)}{G(1) - G(0)} = \dfrac{\deriv{F}(\theta)}{\deriv{G}(\theta)}\eqper\] + + 那么现在取$F(t) = f(x_0 + t\Delta x) - P_n(t\Delta x), G(t) = (t\Delta x)^{n+1} \in C^{n+1}[0,1]$那么$F(0) = G(0) = 0$且 + \begin{align*} + \deriv{F}(t) & = \Delta x(\deriv{f}(x_0 + t \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(t\Delta x))\\ + \deriv{G}(t) & = \Delta x(n+1)(t\Delta x)^n + \end{align*} + 那么应用Cauchy中值定理得到$\exists \theta_1 \in (0,1)$满足 + \[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} = \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0 + \theta_1 \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(\theta_1 \Delta x)}{(n+1)(\theta_1 \Delta x)^n}\] + 再对上式左侧应用Cauchy中值定理可得$\exists \theta_2 \in (0,1)$满足 + \[\frac{\deriv{f}(x_0 + \theta_1 \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(\theta_1 \Delta x)}{(n+1)(\theta_1 \Delta x)^n} = \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0 + \theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x) - P_n^{\prime \prime}(\theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x)}{(n+1)n(\theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x)^n}\] + 重复此过程继续得到$\theta_3, \theta_4, \cdots, \theta_n, \theta_{n+1} \in (0,1)$使得 + \begin{align*} + \frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} & = \cdots = \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0 + \theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x) - P_n^{(n)}(\theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x)}{(n+1)!(\theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x)}\\ + & = \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta_1\cdots\theta_n\theta_{n+1}\Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\eqper \qedhere + \end{align*} +\end{proof} + +\begin{remark} + 带Lagrange余项的Taylor公式也常常写作:设$f$在$(a,b)$内$n+1$阶可导,$\forall x_0, x \in (a,b)$,$\exists \xi$在$x_0$与$x$之间满足 + \[f(x) = P_n(x - x_0) + \frac{f^{n+1}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\Delta x^{n+1}\eqper\] \end{remark} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/05差值与逼近初步.tex b/05差值与逼近初步.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c49ceb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/05差值与逼近初步.tex @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +\chapter{差值与逼近初步} +\section{Lagrange差值公式} +略。 + +\section{Bernstein多项式} +见定理\ref{Weierstrass第一逼近定理}。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/06求导的逆运算.tex b/06求导的逆运算.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a5e944 --- /dev/null +++ b/06求导的逆运算.tex @@ -0,0 +1,168 @@ +\chapter{求导的逆运算} +\section{原函数的概念} +\begin{definition}[原函数] + 设$f, F: I \to \realnum$,$I$是一个区间,如果$\forall x \in I$,有 + \[\deriv{F}(x) = f(x)\] + 则称$F$是$f$在$I$上的一个原函数。 +\end{definition} + +\begin{corollary} + 设$F$是$f \equiv 0$在$I$上的一个原函数,则$\exists C \in \realnum$,使得$F(x) = C, \forall x \in I$。 +\end{corollary} + +\begin{corollary} + 设$F_1$和$F_2$都是$f$在$I$上的原函数,则$\exists C \in \realnum$,使得$F_1(x) = F_2(x) + C, \forall x \in I$。 +\end{corollary} + +\begin{definition}[不定积分] + 设$f: I \to \realnum$,记号 + \[\int f(x) \dif x\] + 称为函数$f$的不定积分,表示函数$f$的所有原函数。其中$\int$为积分号,$f(x)$为被积函数,$x$为积分变量。 +\end{definition} + +\begin{corollary} + 设$F$是$f$在$I$上的一个原函数,则 + \[\int f(x) \dif x = F(x) + C, C \in \realnum\eqper\] + 这也就是说 + \[\deriv{\left(\int f(x) \dif x\right)} = f(x)\eqper\] +\end{corollary} + +\begin{corollary} + 设$f$在$I$上处处可微,则 + \[\int \deriv{f}(x) \dif x = f(x) + C, \int \dif f(x) = f(x) + C\eqper\] +\end{corollary} + +\begin{proposition}[积分的线性性质] + \[\int [\alpha f(x) + \beta g(x)] \dif x = \alpha \int f(x) \dif x + \beta \int g(x) \dif x\] + 其中常数$\alpha, \beta$不全为0。 +\end{proposition} + +\section{基本不定积分公式} +\begin{multicols}{2} + \begin{enumerate} + \item $\dint 0 \dif x = C$,其中$c$表示常数; + \item $\dint x^\lambda \dif x = \dfrac{1}{1 + \lambda}x^{\lambda+1} + C$,其中$\lambda \neq 1$; + \item $\dint \dfrac{1}{x} \dif x = \ln \vert x \vert + C$; + \item $\dint e^x \dif x = e^x + C$; + \item $\dint a^x \dif x = \dfrac{1}{\ln a}a^x + C$; + \item $\dint \sin x \dif x = - \cos x + C$; + \item $\dint \cos x \dif x = \sin x + C$; + \item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\sin^2 x} \dif x = - \cot x + C$; + \item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\cos^2 x} \dif x = \tan x + C$; + \item $\dint \dfrac{1}{1 + x^2} \dif x = \arctan x + C$; + \item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}\dif x = \arcsin x + C$。 + \end{enumerate} +\end{multicols} + +\section{分部积分法和换元法} +\subsection{分部积分法} +回忆求导公式 +\[\deriv{(uv)} = u\deriv{v} + v\deriv{u}\] +那么等式两边同时取积分,有 +\[uv = \int \deriv{u}(x) v(x) \dif x + \int u(x) \deriv{v}(x) \dif x\] +移项后得到 +\[\int u \dif v = uv - \int v \dif u\eqper\] +称为分部积分公式。 + +\begin{example} + 求$\dint xe^x \dif x$。 +\end{example} +\begin{proof}[解] + 在分部积分公式中取$u = x, v = e^x$,则 + \[\int xe^x \dif x = \int x \dif (e^x) = xe^x - \int e^x \dif x = (x-1)e^x + C\eqper \qedhere\] +\end{proof} + +\subsection{换元法} +回忆复合函数求导法则 +\[\frac{\dif }{\dif x}F(\varphi(x)) = \deriv{F}(\varphi(x)) \deriv{\varphi}(x)\] +这对应不定积分公式 +\[\int \deriv{F}(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) = F(\varphi(x)) + C\] +若记$u = \varphi(x), \deriv{F}(x) = f(x)$,那么有 +\begin{equation*} + \int f(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) \dif x = \int f(u) \dif u\eqper +\end{equation*} +或者也可以将两边换一下位置,得到 +\begin{equation*} + \int f(u) \dif u = \int f(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) \dif x\eqper +\end{equation*} + +这分别被称为第一换元法和第二换元法。 + +\begin{example} + 求不定积分:$\dint \dfrac{\dif x}{a^2 + x^2}, a \neq 0$。 +\end{example} + +\begin{proof}[解] + \begin{align*} + \int \frac{\dif x}{a^2 + x^2} & = \int \frac{1}{a\left[1 + \left(\dfrac{x}{a}\right)^2\right]}\dif \left(\frac{x}{a}\right)\\ + & \xlongequal{u = \frac{x}{a}} \frac{1}{a} \int \frac{\dif u}{1 + u^2}\\ + & = \frac{1}{a} \arctan u + C\\ + & \xlongequal{u = \frac{x}{a}} \frac{1}{a} \arctan \frac{x}{a} + C + \end{align*} +\end{proof} + +\section{有理函数的积分} +目标:计算$\dint f(x) \dif x$,其中$f(x) = \dfrac{P(x)}{Q(x)}$,$P(x), Q(x)$都是多项式。 + +方法: +\begin{enumerate} + \item 将$f$化为``真分式''与多项式的和:确保分子多项式的次数低于分母多项式的次数; + \item 将``真分式''分解成部分分式的和; + \item 再将多项式与部分分式逐项积分。 +\end{enumerate} + +\subsection{真分式} +我们总能将一个假分式通过分式除法将其化为一个假分式加一个真分式的形式。例如: +\[\frac{x^4 - 3x^3 + 4x^2 + 1}{x^3 - 4x^2 + 4x} = x + 1 + \frac{4x^2 - 4x + 1}{x^3 - 4x^2 + 4x} \eqper\] + +另外,我们有 +\begin{theorem} + 设$R = \dfrac{P}{Q}$是一个真分式,其分母$Q$有分解式$Q(x) = (x-a)^\alpha \cdots (x-b)^\beta (x^2 + px + q)^\mu \cdots (x^2 + rx + s)^\nu$,其中$a, \cdots, b, p, q, \cdots, r, s$为实数,且$p^2 - 4q < 0, \cdots, r^2 - 4s < 0; \alpha, \cdots, \beta, \mu, \cdots, \nu$为正整数,则 + \begin{align*} + R(x) & = \frac{A_\alpha}{(x-a)^\alpha} + \frac{A_{\alpha - 1}}{(x-a)^{\alpha - 1}} + \cdots + \frac{A_1}{x-a} + \cdots \\ + & + \frac{B_\beta}{(x-b)^\beta} + \frac{B_{\beta - 1}}{(x-b)^{\beta - 1}} + \cdots + \frac{B_1}{x-b}\\ + & + \frac{K_\mu x + L_\mu}{(x^2 + px + q)^\mu} + \cdots + \frac{K_1 x + L_1}{x^2 + px + q} + \cdots \\ + & + \frac{M_\nu x + N_\nu}{(x^2 + rx + s)^\nu} + \cdots + \frac{M_1 x + N_1}{x^2 + rx + s} + \end{align*} + 其中$A_i, \cdots, B_i, K_i, L_i, \cdots, M_i, N_i$都是实数,并且这分解式的所有系数是唯一确定的。 +\end{theorem} + +上面定理中的所有系数都可以通过待定系数法求得,所有的分母都可以通过将分母因式分解或者找到分母多项式的零点利用因式定理得到。于是我们将一个真分式化成了下列两类分式之和: +\[\frac{A}{(x-a)^k},\quad \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + 2px + q)^k},\quad \text{此时}p^2 < q\] + +而由于 +\[\int \frac{\dif x}{x - a} = \ln \vert x - a \vert + C\] +当$k \geq 2$时, +\[\int \frac{\dif x}{(x-a)^k} = \frac{(x-a)^{1-k}}{1-k} + C\] +因此只需研究如何计算 +\[\int \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + px + q)^k}\dif x, k \in \naturalnum^\ast\] +经过配方有 +\[x^2 + px + q = \left(x + \frac{p}{2}\right)^2 + q - \frac{q^2}{4}\] +令$a^2 = q - \dfrac{q^2}{4}$,再做换元$u = x + \dfrac{p}{2}$,可以得到 +\[\int \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + px + q)^k} \dif x = A \int \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} \dif u + \left(B - \frac{Ap}{2}\right) \int \frac{\dif u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k}\] +前面的积分容易求得,因此只需讨论 +\[I_k = \int \frac{\dif x}{(a^2 + u^2)}\] +做分部积分 +\begin{align*} + I_k & = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2k \int \frac{u^2}{(a^2 + u^2)^{k+1}} \dif u\\ + & = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2k \int \frac{a^2 + u^2 - a^2}{(a^2 + u^2)^{k+1}} \dif u\\ + & = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2kI_k - 2ka^2 I_{k+1} +\end{align*} +得到 +\[I_{k+1} = \frac{1}{2ka^2} \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + \frac{2k-1}{2ka^2}I_k\] +由此得到的递推关系可以把指标$k$降低,最终得到 +\[I_1 = \int \frac{\dif u}{a^2 + u^2} = \frac{1}{a} \arctan \frac{u}{a} + C\eqper\] + +因此一切有理函数理论上都可积。 + +\subsection{三角有理式} +目的:计算$\dint f(x) \dif x$,$f(x) = R(\cos x, \sin x)$,其中$R(u,v) = \dfrac{P(u,v)}{Q(u, v)}$,$P,Q$为2元多项式,$R$称为2元有理函数。 +可做万能代换$t = \tan \dfrac{x}{2}$那么$x = 2 \arctan t, \dif x = \dfrac{2 \dif t}{1 + t^2}$ +\begin{align*} + \cos x & = \cos^2 \frac{x}{2} - \sin^2\frac{x}{2} = \frac{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} - \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}}{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} + \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}} = \frac{1 - t^2}{1 + t^2}\\ + \sin x & = 2 \cos\frac{x}{2} \sin \frac{x}{2} = \frac{2\cos \dfrac{x}{2} \sin \dfrac{x}{2}}{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} + \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}} = \frac{2t}{1 + t^2} +\end{align*} + +那么 +\[\int R(\cos x, \sin x) \dif x = \int R \left(\frac{1 - t^2}{1 + t^2}, \frac{2t}{1 + t^2}\right)\frac{2\dif t}{1 + t^2} = \int \hat{R}(t) \dif t\] +此时$\hat{R}(t)$是$t$的有理函数。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/高等微积分.tex b/高等微积分.tex index 0f2629b..21cb5d9 100644 --- a/高等微积分.tex +++ b/高等微积分.tex @@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ \usepackage{wrapfig} \usepackage{multicol} \usepackage{float} +\usepackage{extarrows} % \usepackage{mathptmx} \geometry{a4paper,scale=0.8} @@ -47,6 +48,7 @@ \newcommand{\invertfunc}[1]{#1^{-1}} \newcommand{\deriv}[1]{#1^\prime} \newcommand{\delx}{\Delta x} +\newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int} \DeclareMathOperator{\sgn}{sgn} \DeclareMathOperator{\arccot}{arccot} @@ -56,7 +58,7 @@ \date{} % linespread{1.5} -% \includeonly{04微分与Taylor定理.tex} +% \includeonly{06求导的逆运算.tex} \begin{document} \maketitle @@ -71,4 +73,6 @@ \include{02函数及其连续性.tex} \include{03函数的导数.tex} \include{04微分与Taylor定理.tex} + \include{05差值与逼近初步.tex} + \include{06求导的逆运算.tex} \end{document} \ No newline at end of file