第八周。

This commit is contained in:
unlockable
2022-11-06 19:06:06 +08:00
parent d3a2b76764
commit 785f77973e
3 changed files with 222 additions and 3 deletions

View File

@@ -554,7 +554,7 @@ Leibniz记号记$\Delta f = f(x_0 + \delx) - f(x_0)$,那么
\begin{proof} \begin{proof}
注意$x_1 < x < x_2$,可以将$x$表示为 注意$x_1 < x < x_2$,可以将$x$表示为
\[x = \lambda x_1 + 1 - \lambda x_2 = \frac{x_2 - x}{x_2 - x_1}x_1 + \frac{x - x_1}{x_2 - x_2}x_2\] \[x = \lambda x_1 + (1 - \lambda) x_2 = \frac{x_2 - x}{x_2 - x_1}x_1 + \frac{x - x_1}{x_2 - x_2}x_2\]
利用下凸的性质 利用下凸的性质
\[f(x) \leq \frac{x_2 - x}{x_2 - x_1}f(x_1) + \frac{x - x_1}{x_2 - x_2}f(x_2)\] \[f(x) \leq \frac{x_2 - x}{x_2 - x_1}f(x_1) + \frac{x - x_1}{x_2 - x_2}f(x_2)\]
@@ -643,7 +643,7 @@ Leibniz记号记$\Delta f = f(x_0 + \delx) - f(x_0)$,那么
曲线作图步骤:对于方程$y = f(x)$ 曲线作图步骤:对于方程$y = f(x)$
\begin{enumerate} \begin{enumerate}
\item 确定函数$f$的定义域 \item 确定函数$f$的定义域
\item 检查$f$对称性:奇偶性与周期性 \item 检查$f$对称性:奇偶性与周期性
\item 检查曲线的渐近线:垂直、水平斜渐近线 \item 检查曲线的渐近线:垂直、水平斜渐近线
\item 研究导函数$\deriv{f}$:确定函数的增减区间、极值点、临界点 \item 研究导函数$\deriv{f}$:确定函数的增减区间、极值点、临界点
\item 研究二阶到函数$f^{\prime \prime}$:确定曲线的上下凸区间与拐点 \item 研究二阶到函数$f^{\prime \prime}$:确定曲线的上下凸区间与拐点

218
04微分与Taylor定理.tex Normal file
View File

@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
\chapter{微分与Taylor定理}
\section{微分的概念与应用}
考虑函数的逼近问题:设$f:I \to \realnum$$x_0 \in I$$I$为区间)。考虑用一个多项式在$x_0$附近逼近$f(x)$比如用0次多项式$P_0(x)$逼近:
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) \approx P_0(\delx) = a \quad \text{$\delx$比较小时)}\]
即我们希望
\[\tolim{\Delta x}{0} [f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_0(\Delta x)] = 0\]
如果$f$$x_0$处连续,那么上式导出$a = f(x_0)$,即$P_0(\Delta x) = f(x_0)$
进一步,考虑用一次多项式$P_1(\Delta x) = a + bx$逼近$f(x)$
\[f(x + \Delta x) \approx P_1(\Delta x) \quad \text{$\delx$比较小时)}\]
即我们希望
\[\tolim{\Delta x}{0} [f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_1(\Delta x)] = 0\]
和刚才一样,我们还能得到$a = f(x_0)$。那么$b$应满足什么要求?
\begin{definition}[微分]
$f$$x_0$点附近有定义,如果存在实数$\lambda$使得
\begin{equation*}\label{微分定义}\tag{$\ast$}
f(x_0 + \Delta x) = f(x_0) + \lambda \Delta x + o(\Delta x) \quad (\Delta x \to 0)
\end{equation*}
则称$f$$x_0$点可微,记$f$$x_0$点的微分为$\dif f(x_0) = \lambda \Delta x$$\lambda$称为$f$$x_0$点的微分系数。
\end{definition}
\begin{remark}
\eqref{微分定义}说明$f$$x_0$点附近有一次多项式近似
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) \approx f(x_0) + \lambda \Delta x \quad \text{$\Delta x$很小)}\eqper\]
\end{remark}
回忆记号$o(\Delta x)$的含义,\eqref{微分定义}实际上表示的是
\[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - f(x_0) - \lambda \Delta x}{\Delta x} = \frac{o(\Delta x)}{\Delta x} \to 0\]
\[\tolim{\Delta x}{0} \left[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - f(x_0)}{\Delta x} - \lambda\right] = 0\]
从此我们可以看到$\lambda = \deriv{f}(x_0)$,这也就是刚才的$b$
\begin{corollary}[可微与可导的关系]
函数$f$$x_0$点可微的充分必要条件是$f$$x_0$点可导。这时微分系数$\lambda = \deriv{f}(x_0)$,即$\dif f(x_0) = \deriv{f}(x_0) \Delta x$
\end{corollary}
\begin{remark}
注意到$\dif x = \deriv{(x)}\Delta x = \Delta x$,因此我们可以将$\dif f(x) = \deriv{f}(x) \Delta x$改写成$\dif f(x) = \deriv{f}(x) \dif x$
\end{remark}
\begin{remark}
回忆Leibniz记号对于函数$y = f(x)$
\[\frac{\dif y}{\dif x} = \deriv{f}(x)\]
\[\dif y = \frac{\dif y}{\dif x} \dif x\eqper\]
\end{remark}
\begin{theorem}[微分的四则运算]
关于函数四则运算运算的微分,有下列法则:
\begin{enumerate}
\item $\dif (f \pm g) = \dif f \pm \dif g$
\item $\dif (fg) = g \dif f + f \dif g$
\item $\dif \left(\dfrac{f}{g}\right) = \dfrac{g \dif f - f \dif g}{g^2}$,其中$g \neq 0$
\end{enumerate}
\end{theorem}
\begin{theorem}[复合函数的微分]
设函数$x = \varphi(t)$$t$点可微,函数$y = f(x)$$x = \varphi(t)$点可微,则复合函数$y = (f \circ \varphi)(t) = f(\varphi(t))$$t$点可微,且
\[\dif y = \deriv{(f \circ \varphi)}(t) \dif t = \deriv{f}(\varphi(t))\deriv{\varphi}(t) \dif t \eqper\]
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
利用微分与导数的关系及复合函数求导法则即得。
\end{proof}
\begin{remark}
回忆Leibniz记号对于函数$y = f(x), x = \varphi(t)$
\[\frac{\dif y}{\dif t} = \frac{\dif y}{\dif x} \cdot \frac{\dif x}{\dif t}\]
因此有
\[\dif y = \frac{\dif y}{\dif x} \cdot \frac{\dif x}{\dif t} \dif t\eqper\]
\end{remark}
\section{带Peano余项的Taylor公式}
受引入微分概念的启发,如果我们想更精确低用$n$次多项式逼近$f(x)$,即我们希望用
\[P_n(\Delta x) = a_0 + a_1 \Delta x + \cdots + a_n \Delta x^n\]
逼近$f(x)$,那么它应该满足
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = P_n(\Delta x) + o(\Delta x^n)\eqper\]
以二次多项式的逼近为例,令
\[P_2(\Delta x) = a + b \Delta x + c \Delta x^2\]
满足
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = P_2(\Delta x) + o(\Delta x^2)\]
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) - a - b \Delta x - c \Delta x^2 = o(\Delta x^2)\]
考虑$\Delta x \to 0$,则有
\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
f(x_0 + \Delta x) - a \to 0 & \Rightarrow a = f(x_0)\\
\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - a}{\Delta x} - b \to 0 & \Rightarrow b = \deriv{f}(x_0)\\
\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - a - b \Delta x}{\Delta x^2} - c \to 0 & \Rightarrow c = \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2}
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}
这说明只要$f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)$存在就有
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = f(x_0) + \deriv{f}(x_0)\Delta x + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2}\Delta x^2 + o(\Delta x^2)\eqper\]
将其推广,我们有
\begin{definition}[Taylor多项式与Maclaurin多项式]
$f(x)$$x_0$附近有定义,且$f^{(n)}(x_0)$存在,引入多项式
\[P_n(\Delta x) = f(x_0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0)}{1!}\Delta x + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2!}\Delta x^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}\Delta x^n\]
称为$f(x)$$x_0$点的$n$次Taylor多项式。
特别地,在$x_0 = 0$Taylor多项式称为Maclaurin多项式
\[P_n = f(0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(0)}{1!}(x) + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(0)}{2!}x^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x)}{n!}x^n\eqper\]
\end{definition}
\begin{theorem}[Taylor公式]
$f(x)$$x_0$附近有定义,且$f^{(n)}(x_0)$存在,则
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = P_n(\Delta x) + o(\Delta x^n)\]
等价地
\[f(x) = P_n(x - x_0) + o((x-x_0)^n)\]
称为$f(x)$$x_0$带Peano型余项$n$阶/$n$次Taylor多项式展开。其中$o(\Delta x^n)$项称为Peano型余项。
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
注意到对$k = 1, 2, \cdots n$
\[P_n^{(k)}(\Delta x) = f^{(k)}(x_0) + \frac{f^{(k+1)}(x_0)}{1!} \Delta x + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{(n-k)!}\Delta x^{n-k}\]
因此有$P_n^{(n-1)}(\Delta x) = f^{(n-1)}(x_0) + f^{(n)}(x_0)\Delta x$
已知条件中已经隐含了$f$$n$阶一下导数在$x_0$附近都存在,因此下面反复对``$\dfrac{0}{0}$型''极限运用L'Hospital法则
\begin{align*}
\tolim{\Delta x}{0}\frac{f(x_0+\Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^n} & = \tolim{\Delta x}{0} \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0 + \Delta x) - \deriv{P}_n(\Delta x)}{n\Delta x^{n-1}}\\
& = \cdots = \tolim{\Delta x}{0} \frac{f^{(n-1)}(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n^{(n-1)}(\Delta x)}{n(n-1)\cdots 2\cdot \Delta x}\\
& = \tolim{\Delta x}{0} \frac{f^{(n-1)}(x_0 + \Delta x) - f^{(n-1)}(x_0) - f^{(n)}(x_0)\Delta x}{n!\Delta x}\\
& = \frac{1}{n!} \tolim{\Delta x}{0} \left[\frac{f^{(n-1)}(x_0 + \Delta x) - f^{(n-1)}(x_0)}{\Delta x} - f^{(n)}(x_0) \right]\\
& = 0
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = e^x$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
$f^{(k)}(x) = e^x$$f^{(k)}(0) = 1$$k = 1, 2, 3 \cdots$。因此
\[e^x = 1 + \frac{x}{1!} + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \cdots + \frac{x^n}{n!} + o(x^n)\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = \sin x$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
$f^{(k)}(x) = \sin \left(x + \dfrac{k\pi}{2}\right)$$f^{(k)}(0) = \sin \dfrac{k\pi}{2}$$k = 0, 1, 2, \cdots$。因此
\begin{equation*}
f^{(k)} =
\begin{cases}
0, \quad k = 2m\\
(-1)^m, \quad k = 2m + 1
\end{cases}
,\quad m = 0, 1, 2\cdots
\end{equation*}
所以
\[\sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \cdots + (-1)^m \frac{x^{2m+1}}{(2m+1)!} + o(x^{2m+1})\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = \cos x$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
类似上面,
\begin{equation*}
f^{(k)} =
\begin{cases}
(-1)^m, \quad k = 2m\\
0, \quad k = 2m + 1
\end{cases}
,\quad m = 0, 1, 2\cdots
\end{equation*}
所以
\[\cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \cdots + (-1)^m\frac{x^{2m}}{(2m)!} + o(x^{2m})\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = \ln (1 + x)$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
$f^{(k)}(x) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!(1+x)^{k-1}$,因此$f^{(k)}(0) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!$$k = 1, 2, \cdots$
所以
\[\ln (1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots + (-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n} + o(x^n)\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = \arctan x$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}
\begin{equation*}
f^{(k)}(0)
\begin{cases}
0, \quad k = 2m\\
(-1)^m(2m)!, \quad k = 2m + 1
\end{cases}
m = 0, 1, 2, \cdots
\end{equation*}
因此
\[\arctan x = x - \frac{x^3}{3} + \frac{x^5}{5} - \cdots + (-1)^m \frac{x^{2m+1}}{2m + 1} + o(x^{2m+1})\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
计算Maclaurin展开$f(x) = (1 + x)^\alpha$$\alpha \in \realnum$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}
$f^{(k)}(0) = \alpha (\alpha - 1)\cdots(\alpha - k + 1),\quad k = 1, 2, \cdots$,因此
\[(1 + x)^\alpha = 1 + \alpha x + \frac{\alpha (\alpha - 1)}{2!}x^2 + \cdots + \frac{\alpha (\alpha - 1) \cdots (\alpha - n + 1)}{n!}x^n + o(x^n)\eqper\]
\end{proof}
\begin{remark}
上式的几个例子:
\begin{align*}
\frac{1}{1+x} = 1 - x + x^2 - x^3 + x^4 - \cdots + (-1)^n x^n + o(x^n) & \quad (\alpha = -1)\\
\sqrt{1 + x} 1 + \frac{1}{2}x - \frac{1}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = \frac{1}{2})\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1 + x}} = 1 - \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{3}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = -\frac{1}{2})
\end{align*}
\end{remark}

View File

@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@
\date{} \date{}
% linespread{1.5} % linespread{1.5}
% \includeonly{03函数的导数} % \includeonly{04微分与Taylor定理.tex}
\begin{document} \begin{document}
\maketitle \maketitle
@@ -70,4 +70,5 @@
\include{01实数和数列极限.tex} \include{01实数和数列极限.tex}
\include{02函数及其连续性.tex} \include{02函数及其连续性.tex}
\include{03函数的导数.tex} \include{03函数的导数.tex}
\include{04微分与Taylor定理.tex}
\end{document} \end{document}