第四周第二节。
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158
02函数及其连续性.tex
158
02函数及其连续性.tex
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因此$\exists N \in \naturalnum$,$n > N$,$\vert x - x_0 \vert < \delta_0$,那么$f(x_n) < g(x_n) < h(x_n)$。
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由数列夹逼原理,$\toinf g(x_n) = A$,从而$\toxzero g(x) = A$。
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\end{proof}
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\begin{example}
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求证$\lim \limits_{x \to 0} \dfrac{\sin x}{x} = 1$。
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\end{example}
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\begin{proof}
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考虑如下单位圆弧:
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\begin{center}
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\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=4]
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\draw[->] (-0.2,0) -- (1.2,0) node[right] {$x$};
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\draw[->] (0,-0.2) -- (0,1.2) node[above] {$y$};
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\draw (1,0) arc (0:90:1);
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\node[below] at(-0.15,0) {$O$};
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\node[below] (A) at(1,0) {$A$};
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\draw plot[domain=0:1] (\x,{1/sqrt(3)*\x}) node[above] (C) {$C$};
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\node[above] at(0.78,0.3) {$B$};
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\draw[densely dashed] ({sqrt(3)/2},{1/2})--({sqrt(3)/2},0) node[below] {$\cos x$};
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\draw[densely dashed] ({sqrt(3)/2},{1/2})--(0, {1/2}) node[left] {$\sin x$};
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\draw[densely dashed] (1, {1/sqrt(3)})--(0,{1/sqrt(3)}) node[left] {$\tan x$};
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\draw (1,{1/sqrt(3)})--(1,0);
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\end{tikzpicture}
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\end{center}
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\begin{enumerate}[label=(\arabic{*})]
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\item $0 < x < \dfrac{\pi}{2}$时,有
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\[S_{\triangle OAB} \leq S_{\text{扇形$OAB$}} \leq S_{\triangle OAC}\]
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也即
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\[\frac{1}{2} \sin x \leq \frac{1}{2} x \leq \frac{1}{2} \tan x = \frac{1}{2} \frac{\sin x}{\cos x}\]
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这等价于
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\[\frac{\cos x}{\sin x} \leq \frac{1}{x} \leq \frac{1}{\sin x}\]
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因此
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\[\cos x \leq \frac{\sin x}{x} \leq 1 \eqper\]
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\item $-\dfrac{\pi}{2} < x < 0$时,利用函数的奇偶性,有
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\[\cos x = \cos (-x) \leq \frac{\sin (-x)}{-x} = \frac{\sin x}{x} \leq 1 \eqper\]
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\end{enumerate}
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综合起来即为当$0 < \vert x \vert < \dfrac{\pi}{2}$时,
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\[\cos x \leq \frac{\sin x}{x} \leq 1\eqper\]
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上式结合三角公式及$0 < \vert \sin x \vert < \vert x \vert$有
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\[0 \leq 1 - \frac{\sin x}{x} \leq 1 - \cos x = 2 \sin^2 \frac{x}{2} \leq 2 \left(\frac{x}{2}\right)^2 = \frac{1}{2}x^2\]
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整理得到
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\[0 \leq 1 - \frac{\sin x}{x} \leq 1 - \cos x \leq \frac{1}{2}x^2\]
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令$x \to 0^+$,得到
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to 0^+} \left(1 - \frac{\sin x }{x}\right) = \lim \limits_{x \to 0^+} (1 - \cos x) = 0\]
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所以
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin x}{x} = 1\]
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同时也得到
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to 0} \cos x = 1 \eqper\]
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\end{proof}
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\begin{proposition}[单调收敛原理]
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@@ -367,4 +416,111 @@
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\begin{corollary}
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在同一极限过程中$f(x)$为无穷大量$\Leftrightarrow$ $\dfrac{1}{f(x)}$为无穷小量。
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\end{corollary}
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\end{corollary}
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\subsection{无穷小量比较}
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\subsubsection{无穷小量的比较与无穷小量的阶}
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\begin{definition}
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设$f(x)$与$g(x)$都是在同一极限过程$x \to \Theta$中的无穷小量。
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\begin{enumerate}[label=(\arabic{*})]
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\item 如果$\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} \dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)} = 0$,则称$f(x)$是$g(x)$的高阶无穷小量;
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\item 如果$\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} \dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)} = c \neq 0$,则称$f(x)$与$g(x)$是同阶无穷小量。
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\end{enumerate}
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特别当$c=1$时,称$f(x)$与$g(x)$是等价无穷小量,记为
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\[f(x) \sim g(x) (x \to \Theta)\eqper\]
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\end{definition}
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\begin{definition}[无穷小的阶]
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令$a > 0$,若$\lim \limits_{x \to x_0} \dfrac{f(x)}{(x - x_0)^a} = c \neq 0$,则称$f(x)$为$a$阶无穷小($x \to x_0$时)。
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\end{definition}
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\begin{definition}
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设函数$f$与$g$在$x_0$近旁($x_0$除外)有定义,并且$g(x) \neq 0$。
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\begin{enumerate}[label=(\arabic{*})]
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\item 当$x \to x_0$时,若比值$\dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)}$保持有界,即存在正常数$M$,使得$\vert f(x) \leq M \vert g(x) \vert$成立,就用$f(x) = O(g(x))\ (x \to x_0)$表示。
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\item 当$x \to x_0$时,若比值$\dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)}$是一个无穷小,即
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to x_0}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = 0\]
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时,就用$f(x) = o(g(x))\ (x \to x_0)$来表示。
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\end{enumerate}
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\end{definition}
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\subsubsection{几个重要的的等价无穷小}
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\begin{enumerate}
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\item $x \sim \sin x \sim \arcsin x \sim \tan x \sim \arctan x \sim e^x - 1 \sim \ln (1 + x)\ (x \to 0)$
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\item $(1 + x)^a \sim ax\ (x \to 0), a \in \realnum$
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\item $1 - \cos x \sim \dfrac{x^2}{2}\ (x \to 0)$
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\end{enumerate}
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\subsubsection{等价无穷小代换}
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\begin{proposition}
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设$f(x) \sim g(x)\ (x \to \Theta)$即$\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} \dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)} = 1$,考虑
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\[f(x)h(x) = \frac{f(x)}{g(x)} \cdot g(x)h(x)\]
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应用极限的四则运算性质有
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} f(x)h(x) = \lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} g(x)h(x)\eqper\]
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\end{proposition}
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\begin{remark}
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只有乘除因子才可以做等价无穷小代换。
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\end{remark}
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\subsubsection{无穷小的计算}
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\begin{enumerate}
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\item $o(f) + o(f) = o(f)$
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\item $o(f) + O(f) = O(f)$
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\item $O(f) + O(f) = O(f)$
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\item $\dfrac{o(f)}{g} = o\left(\dfrac{f}{g}\right), \dfrac{O(f)}{g} = O\left(\dfrac{f}{g}\right), g \neq 0$
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\end{enumerate}
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\subsection{无穷大量的比较}
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\begin{definition}
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设$f(x)$与$g(x)$都是在同一极限过程$x \to \Theta$中的无穷大量。
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\begin{enumerate}[label=(\arabic{*})]
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\item 如果$\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} \dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)} = 0$,则称$g(x)$是$f(x)$的高阶无穷大量;
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\item 如果$\lim \limits_{x \to \Theta} \dfrac{f(x)}{g(x)} = c \neq 0$,则称$f(x)$与$g(x)$是同阶无穷大量。
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\end{enumerate}
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\end{definition}
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\section{连续函数的概念与实例}
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\begin{definition}[连续函数]
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设函数$f$在$x_0$附近有定义(包括$x = x_0$)。如果
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\[\lim \limits_{x \to x_0} f(x) = f(x_0)\]
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则称$f$在$x_0$连续,也即
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\[\forall \varepsilon > 0, \exists \delta > 0, \text{使得}0 < \vert x - x_0 \vert < \delta \text{时} \vert f(x) - f(x_0) \vert < \varepsilon\]
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否则称$f$在$x_0$间断(不连续)。
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\end{definition}
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\begin{definition}[单侧连续]
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如果$f(x_0+) = f(x_0)$,则称函数$f$在$x_0$处右连续;如果$f(x_0-) = f(x_0)$,则称函数$f$在$x_0$处左连续。
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\end{definition}
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\begin{corollary}
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$f$在$x_0$连续当且仅当$f$在$x_0$左右都连续。
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\end{corollary}
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\subsection{连续函数的运算}
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\begin{proposition}[四则运算]
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设函数$f$和$g$在$x_0$连续,则$f \pm g$和$fg$也在$x_0$连续。又若$g(x_0) \neq 0$,则$\dfrac{f}{g}$也在$x_0$连续。
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\end{proposition}
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\begin{proposition}[复合运算]
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设函数$g(t)$在$t_0$连续,$f(x)$在$x_0 = g(t_0)$连续,则复合函数$(f \circ g)(t)$在$t_0$连续,也即
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\[\lim \limits_{t \to t_0} f(g(t)) = f(g(t_0)) = f(x_0) \eqper\]
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\end{proposition}
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\begin{remark}
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连续函数与连续函数的复合是连续函数。
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\end{remark}
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\begin{definition}
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令$a < b$(包括$a = -\infty$,或$b = +\infty$),记
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\[C(a,b) = \{f:(a,b) \to \realnum \vert f(x)\text{在}(a,b)\text{内处处连续}\}\eqco\]
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记
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\[C[a,b] = \{f:[a,b] \to \realnum \vert f(x)\text{在}(a,b)\text{内处处连续,且在}x=a\text{右连续,在}x=b\text{左连续}\}\eqper\]
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\end{definition}
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\begin{proposition}
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$C(a,b)$与$C[a,b]$都是线性空间,即
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\[\forall f, g \in C(a,b), \forall \alpha, \beta \in \realnum, \alpha f + \beta g \in C(a,b)\]
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\[\forall f, g \in C[a,b], \forall \alpha, \beta \in \realnum, \alpha f + \beta g \in C[a,b]\]
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\end{proposition}
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