第六章。

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@@ -778,7 +778,7 @@ $x = 0$是$f$的第二类间断点。
$x_0$为跳跃间断点。
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}[Weierstrass第一逼近定理]
\begin{theorem}[Weierstrass第一逼近定理]\label{Weierstrass第一逼近定理}
$f \in C[a, b]$,则$\forall \varepsilon > 0$,存在多项式$P(x)$,满足
\[\forall x \in [a, b] \eqco \vert f(x) - P(x) \vert < \varepsilon \eqper\]
\end{theorem}

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@@ -98,6 +98,8 @@
\begin{definition}[Taylor多项式与Maclaurin多项式]
$f(x)$$x_0$附近有定义,且$f^{(n)}(x_0)$存在,引入多项式
\[P_n(\Delta x) = f(x_0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0)}{1!}\Delta x + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2!}\Delta x^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}\Delta x^n\]
\[T_n(f, x_0;x) = f(x_0) + \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0)}{1!}(x-x_0) + \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0)}{2!}(x-x_0)^2 + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)}{n!}(x-x_0)^n\]
称为$f(x)$$x_0$点的$n$次Taylor多项式。
特别地,在$x_0 = 0$Taylor多项式称为Maclaurin多项式
@@ -179,7 +181,7 @@
\begin{proof}[解]
$f^{(k)}(x) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!(1+x)^{k-1}$,因此$f^{(k)}(0) = (-1)^{k-1}(k-1)!$$k = 1, 2, \cdots$
所以
\[\ln (1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots + (-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n} + o(x^n)\eqper\]
\[\ln (1 + x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots + (-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n} + o(x^n)\eqper\qedhere\]
\end{proof}
\begin{example}
@@ -215,4 +217,42 @@
\sqrt{1 + x} 1 + \frac{1}{2}x - \frac{1}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = \frac{1}{2})\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1 + x}} = 1 - \frac{1}{2}x + \frac{3}{8}x^2 + o(x^2) & \quad (\alpha = -\frac{1}{2})
\end{align*}
\end{remark}
\section{带Lagrange余项的Taylor公式}
\begin{theorem}
$f$$(a, b)$$n+1$阶可导,$\forall x_0$$x_0 + \theta x \in (a,b)$$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$满足
\[f(x_0 + \Delta x) = P_n(\Delta x) + \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!} \Delta x^{n+1}\]
其中
\[R_n(\Delta x) := \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!} \Delta x^{n+1}\]
称为Lagrange余项。
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
要证明的式子等价于证明$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$使得对于$\Delta \neq 0$
\[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} = \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\eqper\]
回忆Cauchy中值定理
$F(t), G(t) \in C[0,1]$且在$(0,1)$内可导,且$\deriv{G}(t) \neq 0$,则$\exists \theta \in (0,1)$满足
\[\dfrac{F(1) - F(0)}{G(1) - G(0)} = \dfrac{\deriv{F}(\theta)}{\deriv{G}(\theta)}\eqper\]
那么现在取$F(t) = f(x_0 + t\Delta x) - P_n(t\Delta x), G(t) = (t\Delta x)^{n+1} \in C^{n+1}[0,1]$那么$F(0) = G(0) = 0$
\begin{align*}
\deriv{F}(t) & = \Delta x(\deriv{f}(x_0 + t \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(t\Delta x))\\
\deriv{G}(t) & = \Delta x(n+1)(t\Delta x)^n
\end{align*}
那么应用Cauchy中值定理得到$\exists \theta_1 \in (0,1)$满足
\[\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} = \frac{\deriv{f}(x_0 + \theta_1 \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(\theta_1 \Delta x)}{(n+1)(\theta_1 \Delta x)^n}\]
再对上式左侧应用Cauchy中值定理可得$\exists \theta_2 \in (0,1)$满足
\[\frac{\deriv{f}(x_0 + \theta_1 \Delta x) - \deriv{P_n}(\theta_1 \Delta x)}{(n+1)(\theta_1 \Delta x)^n} = \frac{f^{\prime \prime}(x_0 + \theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x) - P_n^{\prime \prime}(\theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x)}{(n+1)n(\theta_1 \theta_2 \Delta x)^n}\]
重复此过程继续得到$\theta_3, \theta_4, \cdots, \theta_n, \theta_{n+1} \in (0,1)$使得
\begin{align*}
\frac{f(x_0 + \Delta x) - P_n(\Delta x)}{\Delta x^{n+1}} & = \cdots = \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0 + \theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x) - P_n^{(n)}(\theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x)}{(n+1)!(\theta_1\cdots\theta_n\Delta x)}\\
& = \frac{f^{(n+1)}(x_0 + \theta_1\cdots\theta_n\theta_{n+1}\Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\eqper \qedhere
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{remark}
带Lagrange余项的Taylor公式也常常写作$f$$(a,b)$$n+1$阶可导,$\forall x_0, x \in (a,b)$$\exists \xi$$x_0$$x$之间满足
\[f(x) = P_n(x - x_0) + \frac{f^{n+1}(x_0 + \theta \Delta x)}{(n+1)!}\Delta x^{n+1}\eqper\]
\end{remark}

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@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
\chapter{差值与逼近初步}
\section{Lagrange差值公式}
略。
\section{Bernstein多项式}
见定理\ref{Weierstrass第一逼近定理}

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06求导的逆运算.tex Normal file
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\chapter{求导的逆运算}
\section{原函数的概念}
\begin{definition}[原函数]
$f, F: I \to \realnum$$I$是一个区间,如果$\forall x \in I$,有
\[\deriv{F}(x) = f(x)\]
则称$F$$f$$I$上的一个原函数。
\end{definition}
\begin{corollary}
$F$$f \equiv 0$$I$上的一个原函数,则$\exists C \in \realnum$,使得$F(x) = C, \forall x \in I$
\end{corollary}
\begin{corollary}
$F_1$$F_2$都是$f$$I$上的原函数,则$\exists C \in \realnum$,使得$F_1(x) = F_2(x) + C, \forall x \in I$
\end{corollary}
\begin{definition}[不定积分]
$f: I \to \realnum$,记号
\[\int f(x) \dif x\]
称为函数$f$的不定积分,表示函数$f$的所有原函数。其中$\int$为积分号,$f(x)$为被积函数,$x$为积分变量。
\end{definition}
\begin{corollary}
$F$$f$$I$上的一个原函数,则
\[\int f(x) \dif x = F(x) + C, C \in \realnum\eqper\]
这也就是说
\[\deriv{\left(\int f(x) \dif x\right)} = f(x)\eqper\]
\end{corollary}
\begin{corollary}
$f$$I$上处处可微,则
\[\int \deriv{f}(x) \dif x = f(x) + C, \int \dif f(x) = f(x) + C\eqper\]
\end{corollary}
\begin{proposition}[积分的线性性质]
\[\int [\alpha f(x) + \beta g(x)] \dif x = \alpha \int f(x) \dif x + \beta \int g(x) \dif x\]
其中常数$\alpha, \beta$不全为0。
\end{proposition}
\section{基本不定积分公式}
\begin{multicols}{2}
\begin{enumerate}
\item $\dint 0 \dif x = C$,其中$c$表示常数;
\item $\dint x^\lambda \dif x = \dfrac{1}{1 + \lambda}x^{\lambda+1} + C$,其中$\lambda \neq 1$
\item $\dint \dfrac{1}{x} \dif x = \ln \vert x \vert + C$
\item $\dint e^x \dif x = e^x + C$
\item $\dint a^x \dif x = \dfrac{1}{\ln a}a^x + C$
\item $\dint \sin x \dif x = - \cos x + C$
\item $\dint \cos x \dif x = \sin x + C$
\item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\sin^2 x} \dif x = - \cot x + C$
\item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\cos^2 x} \dif x = \tan x + C$
\item $\dint \dfrac{1}{1 + x^2} \dif x = \arctan x + C$
\item $\dint \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}\dif x = \arcsin x + C$
\end{enumerate}
\end{multicols}
\section{分部积分法和换元法}
\subsection{分部积分法}
回忆求导公式
\[\deriv{(uv)} = u\deriv{v} + v\deriv{u}\]
那么等式两边同时取积分,有
\[uv = \int \deriv{u}(x) v(x) \dif x + \int u(x) \deriv{v}(x) \dif x\]
移项后得到
\[\int u \dif v = uv - \int v \dif u\eqper\]
称为分部积分公式。
\begin{example}
$\dint xe^x \dif x$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
在分部积分公式中取$u = x, v = e^x$,则
\[\int xe^x \dif x = \int x \dif (e^x) = xe^x - \int e^x \dif x = (x-1)e^x + C\eqper \qedhere\]
\end{proof}
\subsection{换元法}
回忆复合函数求导法则
\[\frac{\dif }{\dif x}F(\varphi(x)) = \deriv{F}(\varphi(x)) \deriv{\varphi}(x)\]
这对应不定积分公式
\[\int \deriv{F}(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) = F(\varphi(x)) + C\]
若记$u = \varphi(x), \deriv{F}(x) = f(x)$,那么有
\begin{equation*}
\int f(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) \dif x = \int f(u) \dif u\eqper
\end{equation*}
或者也可以将两边换一下位置,得到
\begin{equation*}
\int f(u) \dif u = \int f(\varphi(x))\deriv{\varphi}(x) \dif x\eqper
\end{equation*}
这分别被称为第一换元法和第二换元法。
\begin{example}
求不定积分:$\dint \dfrac{\dif x}{a^2 + x^2}, a \neq 0$
\end{example}
\begin{proof}[解]
\begin{align*}
\int \frac{\dif x}{a^2 + x^2} & = \int \frac{1}{a\left[1 + \left(\dfrac{x}{a}\right)^2\right]}\dif \left(\frac{x}{a}\right)\\
& \xlongequal{u = \frac{x}{a}} \frac{1}{a} \int \frac{\dif u}{1 + u^2}\\
& = \frac{1}{a} \arctan u + C\\
& \xlongequal{u = \frac{x}{a}} \frac{1}{a} \arctan \frac{x}{a} + C
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\section{有理函数的积分}
目标:计算$\dint f(x) \dif x$,其中$f(x) = \dfrac{P(x)}{Q(x)}$$P(x), Q(x)$都是多项式。
方法:
\begin{enumerate}
\item$f$化为``真分式''与多项式的和:确保分子多项式的次数低于分母多项式的次数;
\item 将``真分式''分解成部分分式的和;
\item 再将多项式与部分分式逐项积分。
\end{enumerate}
\subsection{真分式}
我们总能将一个假分式通过分式除法将其化为一个假分式加一个真分式的形式。例如:
\[\frac{x^4 - 3x^3 + 4x^2 + 1}{x^3 - 4x^2 + 4x} = x + 1 + \frac{4x^2 - 4x + 1}{x^3 - 4x^2 + 4x} \eqper\]
另外,我们有
\begin{theorem}
$R = \dfrac{P}{Q}$是一个真分式,其分母$Q$有分解式$Q(x) = (x-a)^\alpha \cdots (x-b)^\beta (x^2 + px + q)^\mu \cdots (x^2 + rx + s)^\nu$,其中$a, \cdots, b, p, q, \cdots, r, s$为实数,且$p^2 - 4q < 0, \cdots, r^2 - 4s < 0; \alpha, \cdots, \beta, \mu, \cdots, \nu$为正整数,则
\begin{align*}
R(x) & = \frac{A_\alpha}{(x-a)^\alpha} + \frac{A_{\alpha - 1}}{(x-a)^{\alpha - 1}} + \cdots + \frac{A_1}{x-a} + \cdots \\
& + \frac{B_\beta}{(x-b)^\beta} + \frac{B_{\beta - 1}}{(x-b)^{\beta - 1}} + \cdots + \frac{B_1}{x-b}\\
& + \frac{K_\mu x + L_\mu}{(x^2 + px + q)^\mu} + \cdots + \frac{K_1 x + L_1}{x^2 + px + q} + \cdots \\
& + \frac{M_\nu x + N_\nu}{(x^2 + rx + s)^\nu} + \cdots + \frac{M_1 x + N_1}{x^2 + rx + s}
\end{align*}
其中$A_i, \cdots, B_i, K_i, L_i, \cdots, M_i, N_i$都是实数,并且这分解式的所有系数是唯一确定的。
\end{theorem}
上面定理中的所有系数都可以通过待定系数法求得,所有的分母都可以通过将分母因式分解或者找到分母多项式的零点利用因式定理得到。于是我们将一个真分式化成了下列两类分式之和:
\[\frac{A}{(x-a)^k},\quad \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + 2px + q)^k},\quad \text{此时}p^2 < q\]
而由于
\[\int \frac{\dif x}{x - a} = \ln \vert x - a \vert + C\]
$k \geq 2$时,
\[\int \frac{\dif x}{(x-a)^k} = \frac{(x-a)^{1-k}}{1-k} + C\]
因此只需研究如何计算
\[\int \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + px + q)^k}\dif x, k \in \naturalnum^\ast\]
经过配方有
\[x^2 + px + q = \left(x + \frac{p}{2}\right)^2 + q - \frac{q^2}{4}\]
$a^2 = q - \dfrac{q^2}{4}$,再做换元$u = x + \dfrac{p}{2}$,可以得到
\[\int \frac{Ax + B}{(x^2 + px + q)^k} \dif x = A \int \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} \dif u + \left(B - \frac{Ap}{2}\right) \int \frac{\dif u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k}\]
前面的积分容易求得,因此只需讨论
\[I_k = \int \frac{\dif x}{(a^2 + u^2)}\]
做分部积分
\begin{align*}
I_k & = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2k \int \frac{u^2}{(a^2 + u^2)^{k+1}} \dif u\\
& = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2k \int \frac{a^2 + u^2 - a^2}{(a^2 + u^2)^{k+1}} \dif u\\
& = \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + 2kI_k - 2ka^2 I_{k+1}
\end{align*}
得到
\[I_{k+1} = \frac{1}{2ka^2} \frac{u}{(a^2 + u^2)^k} + \frac{2k-1}{2ka^2}I_k\]
由此得到的递推关系可以把指标$k$降低,最终得到
\[I_1 = \int \frac{\dif u}{a^2 + u^2} = \frac{1}{a} \arctan \frac{u}{a} + C\eqper\]
因此一切有理函数理论上都可积。
\subsection{三角有理式}
目的:计算$\dint f(x) \dif x$$f(x) = R(\cos x, \sin x)$,其中$R(u,v) = \dfrac{P(u,v)}{Q(u, v)}$$P,Q$为2元多项式$R$称为2元有理函数。
可做万能代换$t = \tan \dfrac{x}{2}$那么$x = 2 \arctan t, \dif x = \dfrac{2 \dif t}{1 + t^2}$
\begin{align*}
\cos x & = \cos^2 \frac{x}{2} - \sin^2\frac{x}{2} = \frac{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} - \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}}{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} + \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}} = \frac{1 - t^2}{1 + t^2}\\
\sin x & = 2 \cos\frac{x}{2} \sin \frac{x}{2} = \frac{2\cos \dfrac{x}{2} \sin \dfrac{x}{2}}{\cos^2 \dfrac{x}{2} + \sin^2 \dfrac{x}{2}} = \frac{2t}{1 + t^2}
\end{align*}
那么
\[\int R(\cos x, \sin x) \dif x = \int R \left(\frac{1 - t^2}{1 + t^2}, \frac{2t}{1 + t^2}\right)\frac{2\dif t}{1 + t^2} = \int \hat{R}(t) \dif t\]
此时$\hat{R}(t)$$t$的有理函数。

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@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@
\usepackage{wrapfig}
\usepackage{multicol}
\usepackage{float}
\usepackage{extarrows}
% \usepackage{mathptmx}
\geometry{a4paper,scale=0.8}
@@ -47,6 +48,7 @@
\newcommand{\invertfunc}[1]{#1^{-1}}
\newcommand{\deriv}[1]{#1^\prime}
\newcommand{\delx}{\Delta x}
\newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int}
\DeclareMathOperator{\sgn}{sgn}
\DeclareMathOperator{\arccot}{arccot}
@@ -56,7 +58,7 @@
\date{}
% linespread{1.5}
% \includeonly{04微分与Taylor定理.tex}
% \includeonly{06求导的逆运算.tex}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
@@ -71,4 +73,6 @@
\include{02函数及其连续性.tex}
\include{03函数的导数.tex}
\include{04微分与Taylor定理.tex}
\include{05差值与逼近初步.tex}
\include{06求导的逆运算.tex}
\end{document}