第十周。

15曲面的表示与逼近.tex

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+\chapter{曲面的表示与逼近}
+\section{曲面的表示}
+\subsection{曲面的显式表示}
+设有界闭区域$D \subset \realnum^2$，函数$f:D \to \ndreal$连续，我们称函数$f$的图像
+\[G(f) = \{(x, y, f(x, y)) \in \realnum^3 \mid (x, y) \in D\}\]
+为一张曲面，它展布在$D$上，称这曲面是由显式方程
+\[z = f(x, y), (x, y) \in D\]
+所确定的。
+
+\subsection{曲面的隐式表示}
+设三元函数$F$定义在区域$D \subset \realnum^3$，区域$D$中所有满足方程
+\[F(x, y, z) = 0\tag{$\ast$} \label{曲面隐式表示}\]
+的点集组成一张曲面，称为由方程\eqref{曲面隐式表示}所确定的隐式曲面。
+
+\subsection{曲面的参数表示}
+设$\bvec{f}: D \to \realnum^3$，$D \subset \realnum^2$是平面区域。则集合
+\[S = \{(x, y, z) \mid (x, y, z) = \bvec{f}(u, v), (u, v) \in D\} = f(D)\]
+称为$\realnum^3$空间中的一个曲面，$\bvec{f}(u, v)$称为曲面的$S$的参数表示。
+
+\section{曲面的法向与切平面}
+\subsection{有显式表示的曲面的切平面与法向量}
+设曲面$S$有显式表示$z = f(x, y)$，令$z_0 = f(x_0, y_0)$，则$P = (x_0, y_0, z_0) \in S$，且$S$在$P$点的切平面方程为
+\[z = z_0 + \frac{\partial f}{\partial x} (x_0, y_0) (x - x_0) + \frac{\partial f}{\partial y} (x_0, y_0) (y - y_0)\]
+该平面的法向量
+\[\bvec{n} = \pm \left(\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}(x_0, y_0), \frac{\partial f}{\partial y}(x_0, y_0), -1\right)\]
+因此切平面方程还可以写成向量内积的形式：
+\[\brak{\bvec{n}, \bvec{r} - \bvec{r}_0} = 0\]
+其中
+\[\bvec{r} = (x, y, z), \bvec{r}_0 = (x_0, y_0, z_0)\eqper\]
+
+\subsection{隐式曲面的切平面与法向量}
+设曲面$S$有隐式表示$F(x, y, z) = 0$，取$P = (x_0, y_0, z_0) \in S$，即$F(x_0, y_0, z_0) = 0$，不妨令$F \in C^1$且$\dfrac{\partial F}{\partial z}(x_0, y_0, z_0) \neq 0$，则根据隐函数定理，$P$点附近$S$有显示表示$z = z(x, y)$，切平面方程为
+\[z = z_0 + \frac{\partial z}{\partial x}(x_0, y_0) (x - x_0) + \frac{\partial z}{\partial y}(x_0, y_0) (y - y_0)\]
+其中
+\[\frac{\partial z}{\partial x} = -\frac{\dfrac{\partial F}{\partial x}}{\dfrac{\partial F}{\partial z}}, \frac{\partial z}{\partial y} = -\frac{\dfrac{\partial F}{\partial y}}{\dfrac{\partial F}{\partial z}}\]
+带入切平面方程，整理得
+\[\frac{\partial F}{\partial x}(P) (x - x_0) + \frac{\partial F}{\partial y}(P) (y - y_0) + \frac{\partial F}{\partial z}(P) (z - z_0) = 0\]
+因此法向量
+\[\bvec{n} = \pm \gra F(P)\]
+写成向量内积的形式
+\[\brak{\bvec{n}, \bvec{r} - \bvec{r}_0} = 0\eqper\]
+
+\subsection{参数曲面的切平面与法向量}
+设曲面$S$有参数表示$\bvec{r} = \bvec{r}(u, v)$，$(u, v) \in D$。写成分量形式：$x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), z = z(u, v)$。
+
+令$(u_0, v_0) \in D$对应$P = (x_0, y_0, z_0) \in S$。只考虑$u$变化时对应的曲线：$\bvec{r} = \bvec{r}(u, v_0)$，切向为$\dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u, v_0)$；类似地只考虑$v$变化时对应的曲线切向为$\dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v)$。这两个法向量都应在$S$在$(u_0, v_0)$的切平面内，因此$S$在$P$点切平面的法向量$\bvec{n}$满足$\bvec{n} \perp \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0)$与$\bvec{n} \perp \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0)$。
+
+综合起来，得到
+\[\bvec{n} \parallel \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0) \times \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0)\]
+
+进一步假设$\dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0) \times \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0) \neq \bvec{0}$即两向量不共线，则可取$S$在$P$点法向$\bvec{n} = \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0) \times \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0)$，得到切平面方程
+\[\brak{\dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0) \times \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0), \bvec{r} - \bvec{r}_0}\]
+利用行列式也可以得到切平面方程
+\[\begin{vmatrix}
+    x - x_0 & y - y_0 & z - z_0\\
+    D_u x(u_0, v_0) & D_u y(u_0, v_0) & D_u z(u_0, v_0)\\
+    D_v x(u_0, v_0) & D_v y(y_0, v_0) & D_v z(u_0, v_0)
+\end{vmatrix}
+= 0\]
+与法向量
+\[\bvec{n} = \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial u}(u_0, v_0) \times \dfrac{\partial \bvec{r}}{\partial v}(u_0, v_0) =
+\begin{vmatrix}
+    \bvec{e}_1 & \bvec{e}_2 & \bvec{e}_3\\
+    D_u x & D_u y & D_u z\\
+    D_v x & D_v y & D_v z
+\end{vmatrix}\eqper\]
+
+同时，记$D_u \bvec{r} \times D_v \bvec{r} = (A, B, C)$，由定义
+\[A = \begin{vmatrix}
+    D_u y & D_u z\\
+    D_v y & D_v z
+\end{vmatrix}, 
+B = \begin{vmatrix}
+    D_u z & D_u x\\
+    D_v z & D_v x
+\end{vmatrix}, 
+C = \begin{vmatrix}
+    D_u x & D_u y\\
+    D_v x & D_v y
+\end{vmatrix}\]
+引入第一基本量记号
+\[E = \brak{D_u \bvec{r}, D_u \bvec{r}}, F = \brak{D_u \bvec{r}, D_v \bvec{r}}, G = \brak{D_v \bvec{r}, D_v \bvec{r}}\eqper\]
+
+\section{曲线的切向量}
+对曲线$\bvec{r} = \bvec{r}(t)$，在$\bvec{r}_0 = \bvec{r}(t_0)$处的切向量为
+\[\deriv{\bvec{r}}(t_0) = \left(\deriv{x}(t_0), \deriv{y}(t_0) \deriv{z}(t_0)\right)\eqper\]
+
+对曲线
+\(\left\{\begin{aligned}
+    & F(x, y, z) = 0\\
+    & G(x, y, z) = 0
+\end{aligned}\right.\)
+即曲面$F(x, y, z) = 0$与$G(x, y, z) = 0$的交线，在$\bvec{r}_0 = (x_0, y_0, z_0)$处的切线为$\gra F(\bvec{r}_0) \times \gra G(\bvec{r}_0)$。