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MathematicalAnalysis/14多变量函数的微分学.tex
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\chapter{多变量函数的微分学}
\section{方向导数和偏导数}
\begin{definition}[方向导数]
设开集$D \subset \ndreal$$f: D \to \realnum$$\bvec{u} \in \realnum^n$$\norm{\bvec{u}} = 1$,此时称$\bvec{u}$为一个方向,$\bvec{x}_0 \in D$。如果极限
\[\tolim{t}{0} \frac{f(\bvec{x}_0 + t\bvec{u}) - f(\bvec{x})}{t}\]
存在且有限,那么称这个极限是函数$f$在点$\bvec{x}_0$处沿方向$\bvec{u}$方向的导数,记为$\dfrac{\partial f}{\partial \bvec{u}} (\bvec{x}_0)$
\end{definition}
\begin{remark}
$\phi(t) = f(\bvec{a} + t \tilde{\bvec{u}})$,则显然$\deriv{\phi}(0) = \dfrac{\partial f}{\partial \bvec{u}} (\bvec{a})$
\end{remark}
\begin{definition}[偏导数]
讨论下列单位坐标向量
\begin{align*}
\bvec{e}_1 & = (1, 0, 0, \dots, 0)\\
\bvec{e}_2 & = (0, 1, 0, \dots, 0)\\
& \quad \dots\\
\bvec{e}_n & = (0, 0, \dots, 0, 1)
\end{align*}
称函数$f$在点$\bvec{x}_0$处沿方向$\bvec{e}_i$的方向导数为$f$$\bvec{x}_0$处的第$i$个一阶偏导数,记作
\[\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i}(\bvec{x}_0)\]
\[D_i f(\bvec{x}_0)\]
并称$D_i = \dfrac{\partial}{\partial x_i}$为第$i$个偏微分算子,$i = 1, 2, \dots, n$
\end{definition}
\section{多变量函数的微分}
我们希望与一维函数时类似,用一个切平面来线性近似一个曲面在某一点附近的值,即如果我们已知某空间曲面$S$的函数表示为$z = f(x, y)$,那么给定$S$上一点$P = (x_0, y_0, z_0)$,考察曲面上该点上的切平面的方程。首先其方程过$P$,因此应为
\[z = z_0 + a(x - x_0) + b(y - y_0)\]
其次作为切平面应该有$z_0 = f(x_0, y_0)$,同时
\[f(x, y) - z_0 - a(x - x_0) - b(y - y_0) = o\left(\sqrt{(x - x_0)^2 + (y - y_0)^2}\right)\]
\[f(x, y) - f(x_0, y_0) = a(x - x_0) + b(y - y_0) + o \left(\sqrt{(x - x_0)^2 + (y - y_0)^2}\right)\]
再进一步,我们希望线性地近似一个多元函数。假设我们一直函数$u = f(x, y, z)$。那么给定一点$P = (x_0, y_0, z_0)$,考察函数在该点附近的线性近似
\[u = u_0 + a(x - x_0) + b(y - y_0) + c(z - z_0)\]
如果它是已知函数在$P$的线性近似,那么$u_0 = f(x_0, y_0, z_0)$
\[f(x, y, z) - f(x_0, y_0, z_0) = a\Delta x + b \Delta y + c \Delta z + o\left(\sqrt{\Delta x^2 + \Delta y^2 + \Delta z^2}\right)\]
其中
\[\Delta x = x - x_0, \Delta y = y - y_0, \Delta z = z - z_0\]
\begin{definition}[函数的微分]
$D \subset \ndreal$$f: D \to \realnum$。取定一点$\bvec{x}_0 \in D\interior$。如果存在$n$维向量$\bvec{A} = (\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \dots, \lambda_n)$,满足
\[f(\bvec{x}_0 + \Delta \bvec{x}) - f(\bvec{x}_0) = \brak{\bvec{A}, \Delta \bvec{x}} + o(\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}})\]
那么称函数$f$在点$\bvec{x}_0$处可微,并称$\brak{\bvec{A}, \Delta \bvec{x}}$$f$$\bvec{x}_0$处的微分,记作
\[\dif f(\bvec{x}_0) = \brak{\bvec{A}, \Delta \bvec{x}}\]
其中$\bvec{A}$称为微分系数。
\end{definition}
$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微,$\dif f(\bvec{a}) = \brak{A, \Delta \bvec{x}}$$A = (\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \dots, \lambda_3)$。因此
\[\tolim{\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}}}{0} \frac{\abs{f(\bvec{a} + \Delta \bvec{x}) - f(\bvec{a}) - \brak{A, \Delta \bvec{x}}}}{\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}}} = 0\]
\begin{align*}
\bvec{u}_1 & = (1, 0, 0, \dots, 0)\\
\bvec{u}_2 & = (0, 1, 0, \dots, 0)\\
& \quad \dots\\
\bvec{u}_n & = (0, 0, \dots, 0, 1)
\end{align*}
为确定微分系数,取$\Delta \bvec{x} = t \bvec{u}_i$,那么
\[\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}} = \abs{t}, \brak{A, \Delta \bvec{x}} = \brak{A, t\bvec{u}_i} = t\lambda_i\]
带入上式
\[\tolim{t}{0} \abs{\frac{f(\bvec{a} + t \bvec{u}_i) - f(\bvec{a}) - t\lambda_i}{t}} = 0\]
因此
\[\lambda_i = \tolim{t}{0} \frac{f(\bvec{a} + t\bvec{u}_i) - f(\bvec{a})}{t} = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} (\bvec{a}), i = 1, 2, \dots, n\eqper\]
\begin{corollary}
$f:D \to \realnum$$\bvec{a} \in D\interior$。如果$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微,则在$\bvec{a}$点的偏导数存在,且
\[\dif f(\bvec{a}) = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1}(\bvec{a}) \Delta x_1 + \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_2}(\bvec{a}) \Delta x_2 + \dots + \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_n}(\bvec{a}) \Delta x_n\eqper\]
\end{corollary}
\begin{corollary}
$f:D \to \realnum$$\bvec{a} \in D\interior$。如果$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微,则$f$$\bvec{a}$点连续。
\end{corollary}
\begin{proof}
\begin{align*}
\abs{f(\bvec{a} + \Delta \bvec{x}) - f(\bvec{a})} & = \abs{\brak{A, \Delta \bvec{x}} + o(\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}})}\\
& \leq \norm{A} \cdot \norm{\Delta \bvec{x}} + \abs{o(\norm{\Delta \bvec{x}})} \to 0\qedhere
\end{align*}
\end{proof}
\begin{definition}
\[Jf(\bvec{x}) = (D_1 f(\bvec{x}), D_2f(\bvec{x}), \dots, D_n f(\bvec{x}))\]
并称它为函数$f$在点$\bvec{x}$处的Jacobian。函数的Jacobian也常记为$\gra f$$\nabla f$,即
\[\gra f(\bvec{x}) = J f(\bvec{x})\]
称之为数量函数$f$的梯度。
\end{definition}
\begin{proposition}
如果$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微,则对于任意方向$\bvec{u} \in \ndreal$$\norm{\bvec{u}} = 1$,那么
\[D_{\bvec{u}} f(\bvec{a}) = \frac{\partial f}{\partial \bvec{u}} (\bvec{a}) = \brak{\gra f(\bvec{a}), \bvec{u}}\eqper\]
\end{proposition}
\begin{corollary}
对于任意方向$\bvec{u}$$\abs{D_{\bvec{u}} f(\bvec{a})} \leq \norm{\gra f(\bvec{a})}$
$\gra f(\bvec{a}) \neq 0$$\bvec{u} = \frac{\gra f(\bvec{a})}{\norm{\gra f(\bvec{a})}}$,则$D_{\bvec{u}} f(\bvec{a}) = \norm{\gra f(\bvec{a})}$
这说明,$f$$\bvec{a}$的梯度向量的方向是$f$值增加最快的方向,大小是$f$在该点所有方向导数的最大值。
\end{corollary}
下面的命题给出了一个函数可微的必要条件。
\begin{proposition}
若函数$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微,则存在
\[\gra f(\bvec{a}) = (D_1 f(\bvec{a}), \dots, D_n f(\bvec{a}))\]
从而在该点的所有方向导数都存在。
\end{proposition}
下面的命题则给出了一个函数可微的充分条件。
\begin{proposition}
如果$f$的每个偏导数$D_i f(\bvec{x}), i = 1, 2, \dots, n$$\bvec{x} = \bvec{a}$点都存在且连续,则$f$$\bvec{a}$点可微。
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
$n = 2$为例。在$P = (a, b)$点附近考虑函数$f(x, y)$
\[f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a, b) = f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a + \Delta x, b) + f(a + \Delta x, b) - f(a, b)\]
应用一元函数中值定理,存在$\eta, \theta \in (0, 1)$满足
\begin{align*}
f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a + \Delta x, b) & = D_y f(a + \Delta x, b + \eta \Delta y) \Delta y\\
f(a + \Delta x, b) - f(a, b) & = D_x f(a + \theta \Delta x, b)\Delta x
\end{align*}
可以将上式凑配为
\begin{align*}
f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a + \Delta x, b) & = D_y f(a, b) \Delta y + [D_y f(a + \Delta x, b + \eta \Delta y) - D_y f(a, b)] \Delta y\\
f(a + \Delta x, b) - f(a, b) & = D_x f(a, b) \Delta x + [D_x f(a + \theta \Delta x, b) - D_x f(a, b)] \Delta x
\end{align*}
\begin{align*}
[\alpha] & = D_y f(a + \Delta x, b + \eta \Delta y) - D_y f(a, b)\\
[\beta] & = D_x f(a + \theta \Delta x, b) - D_x f(a, b)
\end{align*}
那么
\[f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a, b) = D_x f(a, b) \Delta x + D_y f(a, b) \Delta y + [\alpha] \Delta x + [\beta] \Delta y\]
于是我们只需证明$[\alpha] \Delta x + [\beta] \Delta y = o\left(\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}\right)$。我们已知$D_x f(x, y), D_y f(x, y)$$P = (a, b)$点连续,因此
\[\frac{\abs{[\alpha]\Delta x + [\beta] \Delta y}}{\sqrt{\Delta x^2 + \Delta y^2}} \leq \abs{[\alpha]} + \abs{[\beta]} \to 0\]
综上,
\[f(a + \Delta x, b + \Delta y) - f(a, b) = D_x f(a, b) \Delta x + D_y f(a, b) \Delta y + o\left[\sqrt{\Delta x^2 + \Delta y^2}\right] \eqper \qedhere\]
\end{proof}
总结起来,偏导数在$\bvec{a}$点都连续可以推出函数在$\bvec{a}$点可微,进而可以推出函数在$\bvec{a}$点连续,也可以推出函数在$\bvec{a}$点所有方向导数都存在。